What is Cognitive Neuroscience?

Cognitive neuroscience explores how neural circuits and brain structures give rise to cognition: perception, attention, memory, language, and decision-making.

Neurons & Neurotransmission

Neuron structure

Neurons are electrically excitable cells that transmit information via electrical impulses (action potentials) and chemical signaling (neurotransmitters). A typical neuron has:

  • Soma (cell body) — contains the nucleus.
  • Dendrites — receive input from other neurons.
  • Axon — conducts action potentials to terminals.
  • Myelin sheath — increases conduction speed along axons.
  • Synapse — the gap where neurotransmitter-mediated communication occurs.

Action potentials 

When sufficiently depolarized, voltage-gated channels open and an action potential travels down the axon — an all-or-none electrical signal. Frequency of firing carries information about stimulus intensity.

Synaptic transmission

At the synapse, action potentials trigger release of neurotransmitter-packed vesicles. Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft and bind receptors on the post-synaptic neuron, producing excitatory or inhibitory effects.

Key neurotransmitters

glutamate (excitatory), GABA (inhibitory), dopamine, acetylcholine, serotonin, norepinephrine. These molecules modulate cognition, mood, and arousal

References 

  1. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. "Brain Basics: The Life and Death of a Neuron." (NINDS). 2025. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/
  2. Ludwig, P.E. "Neuroanatomy, Neurons." StatPearls. NCBI Bookshelf. 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441977/
  3. Sheffler, Z.M. "Physiology, Neurotransmitters." StatPearls. 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539894/
  4. Yen, C. et al. "Exploring the Frontiers of Neuroimaging." PMC. 2023. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10381462/
  5. Squire, L.R. "The Legacy of Patient H.M. for Neuroscience." PMC. 2009. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2649674/
  6. Scoville, W.B. & Milner, B. (1957). Original case reports on patient H.M.
  7. Acharya, A.B. "Broca Aphasia." StatPearls. 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK436010/
  8. Acharya, A.B. "Wernicke Aphasia." StatPearls. 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441951/
  9. Crosson, B. "Functional Imaging and Related Techniques." PMC. 2010. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3225087/
  10. NIH / NIDA materials on neurotransmission and synapses.
  11. Posner & Keele
  12. Baddeley, A.D. "Working Memory Model"
  13. Haxby et al. (1995) — neural bases of visual recognition (cited in slides)
  14. Hubel & Wiesel 
  15. Broadbent, Treisman, and models of attention 
  16. imotions EEG vs MRI explainer; neuroelectrics guide to imaging
  17. BrainFacts.org: "The Curious Case of Patient H.M." (2018). https://www.brainfacts.org/
  18. Wikipedia: Henry Molaison
  19. Supplementary PDF: Brain scanning techniques overview 

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